Contents:

African Literature American Civilisation American Literature British Civilisation British Literature Linguistics Phonology Psychology Arabic

THE PROGRAM

ü      The Articles of confederation

ü      The Philadelphia constitutional convention

ü      The bill of rights

ü      The Emergence of political parties

ü      The First World War.

ü      A short encounter:

The land belonged to the British crown, not to the parliament.

·        The Americans tried to get reconciled with British by sending Benjamin Franklin to the members of parliament, describing the poor situation in America.

·        The parliament: the legislative body of GB

·        The Virginia assembly: the legislative body of Virginia

·        The American could not conceive 160000 tyrants have the ability to make laws for 4 million people in America.

·        The reconciliation failed, the king said: “either you submit or the triumph crush you”, then they held the first meeting.

·        Washington was the head of Military Army.

In America, there were dissimilarities between the colonies:

Ø      10% for independence

Ø      10% loyalists to the Crown

Ø      80% indifferent

They needed union of states (government)

What made the union of states difficult to be set up?

In the end they got:

Ø      Union of state

Ø      The congress

Ø      The articles of the congress (the constitution).

The first America was set up of 13 colonies or states only.

The founding of a Nation

Thomas Jefferson wrote the declaration of independence to the crown; they received moral support from Denmark, Spain and France. They were 13 different and dissimilar colonies (1775). It was Benjamin Franklin who submitted the idea of union, but it didn’t succeed, because it was too advanced. Then Richard Henry Lee (1776) who submitted the same suggestion, and he succeeded, because they needed the union to win the war against GB.

They gave birth to a confederation; the confederation à the congress (the government)

The Articles of Confederation (the laws)

Each state has two representatives; the government has only t26 members, so a state is as a big family. In the articles of confederation: each state is independent and sovereign.

In 1776, they declared themselves independent, but it was not easy, and it took them time, and it was only in 1783 that they succeeded to be really independent. The union was loose, it was not solid, but it helped them to unite the states and win the war against GB.

In history there are two United States: the congress (mentioned above) that is the first government of the United States.

The representatives gave the following powers:

-         declare war and make peace

-         send and receive ambassadors

-         establish a postal system

-         regulate trade among the Indians

-         Act as a board of appeal between one state and another.

However that government was weak because they did not give it the most important powers:

-         taxation

-         regulation of trade

The states control the government and not the opposite. The government was under the feet of the states.

Radicals (under the control of George Washington) were in conflict with the conservatives, but both of the groups were for independent of United States.

A constitution it is a set of laws of fundamental importance, which are: Legislative, Judiciary, and executive.

A constitution may be written or unwritten, a constitution does not talk about crimes and punishments and so on, but about the basic rules of  managing the country

The Americans need changes, but Radicals were not for change, they were satisfied, so they refused the changes, whereas conservative were with the others Americans, all were 4 changes, the conservatives asked for another government, and another constitution. So the conservatives had to meet with radicals in order to show the deficient points of Constitution.

When we take a look at the past, we find that Virginia Corporation was n the north and Maryland Corporation was in the south of America, and between the two there was Potomac River. Thanks to the Charter, the river was controlled by Maryland, so the Maryland imposes taxes and others rules to Merchants. So the conflict has trigger on, and they had to find a solution, so the two Companies had to meet to resolve all problems, so they met in Maryland, on a town called Annapolis, in 1786, and they had a conversion (1786 Annapolis Conversion). 9 states of the 13 agree to send delegates to the conversion, but in the end, only 5 states sent representatives, so 5/13 was not the majority and any new rule will not be taken in consideration, the minority which should hear to the majority. So the Annapolis Conversion was a failure, because the majority did not come, and they did not resolve problems or bring changes.

One delegate was Alexander Hamilton; this man took a pen and wrote a letter to congress to ask for another meeting to talk about all problems. Congress received the letter, the red of letter became indignant, but Washington wants to go and participate., he was the soul of America, so the gave Hamilton the agreements, so Annapolis was the stepping stone to another conversation.

States were powerful than the congress, so they said: “we are living in impending monarchy”, this explain the situation in which states were living.

The purpose of the meeting was:

ü      bringing changes

ü      submitting them to the congress and to states

Changes perhaps will be accepted or rejected by the congress, so in A787, in Philadelphia, it was the second meeting (Philadelphia Constitutional Convention). In this meeting all the states accept to send delegates, except Rhode Island, so there were only 12 states, they sent 62 delegates, but at the end only 55 appeared, and during the discussion, some of them left the convention. At the end only 39 stayed to the end of convention.

The result they found the new constitution of the USA, so radicals and conservatives destroyed the articles of confederation and they found the USA. They are called the Founding Fathers. It was the birth of the nation.

The constitution is at most 10 pages, from 1787 to 2006, they created USA.

Instead of receiving reports by the Congress from the meeting, the congress was totally destroyed. The Congress didn’t know that it was singing his death warrant, and the Article of Confederation, so the Congress will disappear. The representative destroyed the Congress.

In Philadelphia, 12 states sent representatives to solve the problem of union, so they expected to make proposals. The delegates who have gone to Philadelphia from 25^th to 17^th September 1787 (4 months). The average age was 42 year, delegates were in civilians, (no captains, no sergeants..), because they needed brains not arms, which mean that the majority was lawyers, who have experience on law, which mean also that they were precise and concise in their rules. The Congress was the first government of USA, and the constitution was almost perfect (1787à2006).

Jefferson didn’t go to Philadelphia; he was in France that moment. And Hamilton is the founder of USA bank.

The representatives of States were radicals and conservatives, the radical asked for only amend, but Conservatives were with the total change.

Washington (the army chief) was a conservative (also Hamilton and James Madison [the father of Conservatives]). So at the first they set Washington as the Chairman of the meeting to organize the debater, then they said that “the secrecy should be the rule”, so the US constitution a bundle of compromise to avoid problem in meeting, they demanded the plan of Conservative and Radicals, so there were 3 plans:

ü      The first of Conservative (called also Randolph Plan or Virginia Plan).

ü      The second one was the radical Plan, submitted by New Jersey (called also William Peterson Plan).

ü      The third one was of Charles Pinckney Plan, it was an own plan (the man was radical). This plan has lost and no one knows how, probably because of youth author.

Features of loosing of Congress

ü      Loose union of states

ü      Each state was independent and sovereign (accept or refuse orders, as they wants).

The congress was weak because it was made by radicals. Radicals kept for themselves all powers, (taxation and regulation of trade).

Radicals were Americans who were for independent, and the most important, they didn't want the British system in their country. They want to cut any link with the Great Britain.

Conservative didn't want that British remain America (not people, but their system of living, rules).

Radicals give power to states (Decentralisation).

Conservatives gives power to Congress and less to states (Centralisation).

There was depicted monarchy, each state can accept or refuse. The fight was between Centralisation and Decentralisation. The fight didn't concern the union, but it concerned the amount of power to be given to the national government.

The constitution meant to last for ages. All plans con concerned the built of nation.

Conservatives fight for taxation and regulation of trade, which were under the authority of states.

In other hand, radicals were for plural executive (president), whereas conservatives were for single executive of USA.

Radicals said: "putting a single executive planting the seeds of monarchy", but conservatives said: "we elect only one, and we put him in front of congress to be controlled".

Each president (single executive) had to stay for 4 years, nut he could be re-elected. After Roosevelt who stays for 4 mandates, they brought change to the constitution, and they said; "only 2 mandates for each president".

Conservative plan asked for:	one executive + House of representative + Judiciary
Radical plan asked for:	one executive + House of one branch + Judiciary + To compromise for taxes and regulation

Radicals asked also for equality of states in vote (there were for example 9 states which contained 5 millions of population, whereas 4 states contained 10 millions of population). Because the equality of states in vote wasn't good, so conservative asked for compromise and create 2 houses instead of 1, and the law will be in the House of Representatives. Here, each state has a percent of representatives depending on the population. So they succeeded to make to 2 houses.

In the House of Representatives, they compromised and they imposed new laws, but there were a problem; if the percent for example was 50% (50 ó 50), so they looked to the vice president vote, which was the 101^st.

The new constitution was good because it succeeded to give power of taxes and regularisation to the Congress, and they sent 13 copies to the states to be discussed a second time, and if it is accepted it will be the new constitution. In 1789 they succeeded to have the new parliament, the new constitution, and the new government under the rule of George Washington. Since that, we are now in the 43^rd president.

Benjamin Franklin said that this new constitution was the rising othis new constitution was the rising of the sun.

James Madison took the copy and sent it to Thomas Jefferson who was in Paris. Jefferson received the copy and said: "I like this constitution, I like the division of government (legislative, executive and judiciary), but I don't like its omission of bill of rights".

Features of loosing of congress:

1.    Loose union of states

Each state was independent and sovereign (accept or refuse as it wants)

The congress was weak because it was made by radicals. Radicals kept for them all stronger powers (taxation and regulation of trade).

Radicals were Americans who were for independent, and most important, did not want the British system in their country, their aim was to cut any link with Great Britain.

Conservative did not want that British remain America (not people, but their system of living and their rules).

Radicals gave power to the states (Decentralisation) but conservatives gave power to the congress and less to the states (Centralisation). There was depicted monarchy, each state can accept or refuse. The fight so was between the centralisation and decentralisation.

The fight did not concern the attitude regarding the union, but it concerns the amount of power to be given to the national government.

The constitution meant to last for ages. All plans concerned the built of the nation.

Conservatives fight for the taxation and the regulation of trade, which were under the authority of states.

Each president (single executive) had to stay for 4 years, but he could be re-elected. Radicals, who were for plural executives, proclaim that putting a single executive planting the seeds of monarchy, but conservatives said that the executive will be put in front of the congress to be controlled.

After Roosevelt who stays for 4 mandates, they brought change to the constitution, and they say: "only 2 mandates" for each president.

Notes:

v  According to Jefferson: people should rule (farmers) è republicanism.

v  According to Hamilton: people should rule but Monarchy and Aristocracy.

v  Power must be given to people who succeeded to do goods and trade.

v  Hamilton succeeded to control the country until 1800

v  Jefferson made an appeal for all sergeants of the community, without exclusion

The Bill Of Rights

2.    Bill of rights:

Is a charter in which you find your citizens, they wanted to discuss the articles they made a condition to accept it, which is remain constitution till adopt Bill of rights. They were two attitudes: Jefferson asked for writing Bill of rights and Hamilton said the rights of citizens were not denied.

Jefferson: "bill of rights must be written, without beauty of sentence, without sophism, it becomes ambiguous, it may provoke ambiguity, and the interpretation may vary from one to another".

Hamilton: "There is no need to write the Bill of Rights, it is not forbidden, it is understood that it is allowed". So simply by mentioning it.

We have two opinions: one declared that mentioning rights is not necessary, since it is not forbidden or denied but it is allowed.

The amendments will touch only the critical points on the constitution, not the whole constitution. For example the ERA issue.

The first 10 amendments are considered as Bill of rights, they are: freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of associate…. The most important amendments were 13^th, 14^th and 15^th in the constitution.

The amendments are put in 1787, two third (⅔) of congress or three fourth (¾) of the states should say yes, so you need 38 states to declare ratified.

The second amendment is the right to bear arms, and one amendment is quartering soldiers. "To bear arms sole".

Citizens need to draw about their right which is to find a union. Each time there is an amendment in USA.

American government has the right to control their opinion, so freedom of speech should be written.

Jefferson said that if we go back to the constitution there s n sentence mean that the federal government to set up the bank since government need to run; this implies that it has the right to charter the bank.

It made in 1787, it took two years to be adopted and USA decided to ratify and this attends the emergence of new union, new constitution and new government which were totally different from the first one.

The dream of founding fathers was one nation, and one people è the people move as one nation and one citizen. To move against parties and to be against local reproach.

The interpretation varied from one judge to another. (As an example: the school bus), so law may mean something for one judge and may mean another thing for another judge.

People started to write citizen's rights which were 10 amendments.

We have 2 constitutions: first is Articles of Confederation and the second is Bill of rights.

Blood had been shed and money had been spent for the independence.

The dream of the founding fathers was one nation and one people. The people move as one nation and one citizen, move against parties and against local reproach.

The country was divided into parties. Founding fathers were against the parties because it meant the division and the conflict. But the F.P made a mistake, because parties were good for the nation.

Party is a form of political organisation to have people in the government and spread the ideas, also to put personal in government that shaped domestic and foreign policy.

To reach government, there were two ways:

ü  legal way: peaceful way (by election)

ü  Illegal way: by revolution and coup.

To make a party, you should:

ü  Give a name

ü  Choose a leader

ü  slogan

Political Parties

The definition of the party:

Is a group of people shared the same political ideas and visions; it is a political organization to try to put personal in power and to shape the home and foreign policy of the country. Each party has got leaders, members, name, slogan and program. Through the government, they put ideas into practice.

Kind of elections:

1.      The presidential election: its main is to elect president.

2.      The legislative election: vote for a member of the government, present people by making laws for the country which is concerning health, educations…

3.      Municipal election (local election): to vote for the mayor.

Depending on the system, when one party wins the election, it became in the government, and the other parties form the opposition by checking legislative (mistakes-watching) and criticizing the policy of the government, whereas, in the multiple parties system, no one is going to criticize because the leader is going to do what they want, but in the system based on one party system, it may turn into a dictatorship, In 1789, among the founding fathers, George Washington was elected to be the 1^st president of the US under the  new constitution. He worked as president to help the nation and to make the nation federal strong, his dream was to see the US more as one nation and one body. He was against the party. He said "if we want to support the independence which has cost us so much blood and treasure, we must drive away the division of party's spirit and local approach". For him, parties mean a division, conflicts and problems. This is why it would be better to have one party.

For Radicals, Washington was not right because without parties people can not check control those in power. Hence, the US would become a dictatorship and tyranny. When Washington wanted to choose ministers, he decided to make a balance between north and south, so he chose two northern: Alexander Hamilton, who was the secretary of treasury and Knox who was defence minister, and two southern: Jefferson who was appointed by the secretary of state (prime minister) and Madison, (the leader of the house of representatives, the head of legislative).

His aim was to have tranquil and quiet administration by having no parties in order to have a balance there was an attempt to keep United States regime as one party system.

For the history of US, his dream did not come true and there was a division of parties which emerged from his administration and the split between Hamilton and Jefferson, pushed them to divide and form two parties.

Federalists: those who were for the federal constitution (Federal = sharing power) and for the union. They were for the balance between the Local States and the United States. The first leader was Alexander Hamilton; it was called Hamiltonian Party, after, it disappeared completely and became the Republican Party. It was led by Merchants whose main interests was in shipping and manufactured financer lawyers. They were aristocrats and businessmen. They were against democracy. They said: "Yes to the rule of the people but not a rule by the people"

Anti-federalists: they were accused by the federalist of being against the state powerful (Radicals), the 1^st leader of Anti-Federalists was James Madison. It was called the Madison Party. After that, it was held by Jefferson who is nowadays democratic, so the party became the Jefferson Party. It is later developed and became Jefferson Republican. They were for democracy.

28/04/2007

The declaration of proclamation was in 1760.

Parties in the government were in the purpose of make laws and ……………….

Causes of division:

ü  Disagreement in ideas and interests

The reports submitted by Hamilton (the main)

The share owners are called in Great Britain the Golden Boys The share differs of the bond in the level of the profit. The share can earn or lose profits, whereas as bands are always beneficial (ربا).

The first buyer of the security is called the Original Holder, and the second who buy from the original is called the Not Original Holder.

Government brings money of citizens and form foreign countries (it will be a national debt). And all debts should be discharged; else it will wage a conflict with citizens and the foreign countries. So government received money from France, Spain and Holland (amount of 50$ millions). These debts were domestics (40$m) and foreign (10$m). Dept should discharged in full (10$ millions of foreign).

The discharging of the national debt was the main cause that divides the union between Jefferson and Hamilton. The government should take money in time and needs imminate

Speculators profit this time and buy bonds of citizens with low prices. After the independence, the federalist Hamilton wanted to discharge bonds in face value, by giving the right to speculators, he said that some of citizens didn't believe in independence, whereas the anti-federalists Jefferson and Madison wanted to pay speculators in less value. This made the conflict between Jefferson and Hamilton.

To summarize:

The two reports that trigger the conflict between the federalist under the control of Jefferson and the republicans were:

1.                           Report on republic credit (domestic and foreign, also called security obligation). Concerning the foreign debt, America discharged it at face value, but they were divided about the domestic debt. Hamilton (the finance minister) wanted to discharge it at face value, but Madison and Jefferson wanted to discharge it at less value. Madison was the leader of House of Representatives, he said to Hamilton in who need his help the dinner: "if you accept Philadelphia as a capital of U.S, I well help you to pass your reports". At the end, there was an arrangement between them since Hamilton accepted Philadelphia as a capital of U.S for 10 years.

2.                           Report of Manufactures: Hamilton wanted U.S to be industrialized, because he was from the north, therefore, he wanted to industrialize the north. Jefferson who was from the south wanted and agricultural country: "country of farmers, by farmers and for farmers". But at the end, the report of manufacture was accepted.