Contents:

African Literature American Civilisation American Literature British Civilisation British Literature Linguistics Phonology Psychology Arabic

 

            Introduction

Phonemes: the sound system differs from one language to another.

Phonology: when we deal with phonology, we deal with a particular language, i.e. a selection wide range of sounds. The treatment of the sound is different.

When we speak about phonetics we consider the physics of the sounds. So phonetics sees the sounds as a physical property, but phonology sees the sound as a functional property.

In phonetics we don?t care about the language (any language), but in phonology we do. I.e. we deal with particular language.

?Here we study the phoneme in phonological way?supportLists]> ·         How these sounds are organized?

·         The sounds patterns, i.e. sounds are organized.
E.g. we are adult, so we use patterns sounds but the body when he speaks, he used patterns sounds, not organized as (noise). The animals also.

Each language arranges sounds in a particular way.

ü  Regularities refer to possibilities.

ü  Restrictions refers to limits

Consonant cluster: is a succession of two or more than consonant in the syllable.

ü  E.g.  p+l   è  play

ü           p+r   è  pray

ü           s+t    è  stick

ü           s+k   è  skin

It is a succession of 2 sounds.

            Phonetics and Phonology

Phonetic heads two branches of studies. Langue is a system (code)

Pragmatic words didn't mean any thing unless in contexts, i.e. it deals with meanings only.

Phonetics and phonology covered:

Phonetics is concerned with the physical aspect of the sound

Phonology is concerned with the abstract aspect of the sound

The sound is the scope of interest of both: phonetics and phonology, it's just the treatment that differs.

Phonology considers the sound as a functional unit (/Pɪt/  ɪ æ  ɑ e ə n) it causes different meanings. If you concretize the sound, it becomes phonetics.

Phonology: we do care about the language; meaning is a part of the cultural of the language.

Phonetics: we stuffy the sound physically, the world's sound in any language

Each language arranges sounds in its own way.

Regularities refer to possibilities. And restrictions refer to limits.

E.g. s+b constitute a limit in the English language, because it doesn't exist.

We all take the mother language as a reference.

A sound is lacked in phonology.

Phonology deals with a particular language.

Phonetics deals with the world languages.

/ɪ/ (phonemic transcription)

/Ĩ / (phonetic transcription)

 

        Introduction to Phonology

Patterns: in Arabic, there are 3 vowels: ɑ, ʊ, ɪ. When we produce vowels in English, we produce gradually unlike Arabic.

Phonemes: distinctive units or a phonological unit  Pɪt,         Pet,     Pɔt,      Pʊt,     Pæt,    Pʌt

Phonology concern meaning, speaking emphatically.

[big] à voiced;           [b_oig] à devoiced

ü  Voicing don’t change meaning

ü  Aspiration don’t change meaning

Phonetic is a narrow transcription because we accent for all the details. Phonology is the sound system.

Phonology: the range of possible human phonetics performance is wide physically speaking. All human are equipped with the same organs of speech.

p, p ^h, b: we have 3 sounds, but we have the substitution of one phoneme with another, will result a new meaning.

English sound system: [p^ha:k] or [pa:k], here we have the same meaning, i.e. aspiration do not change the meaning, but in [p ^ha:k] or [pa:k] à there is a difference between the two.

Clusters p+s don’t exist in Arabic language, because /p/ sound doesn’t exist in sound-system. It is an old sound, but it is in English language. E.g. spin or Spain…etc.

There are some phonemes which exist in language but the arrangement between themes doesn’t exist.

The clusters {s+b à doesn’t exist in English, but it exists in Arabic. There are some clusters which exist in one language and not in the other. Each language has got a repeating of possibilities.

s+m à it is a possibility which can be existed in both languages: English and Arabic.

ü  e.g. smʌ à Arabic (سْمَا)

ü  e.g. smʌl à English (small)

The Alphabet: is an abstract system because they are out of context.

The meaning is abstract.

For the sounds:  ђ=خُ   and   ϰ=  حُ an   ж=ق , they are strange or odd for the one who don’t know its sense ; they are out of his sound-system, so there is a selection in order to make sounds. So, phonology is a selection of sounds.

·   In phonology, function refers to meaning. ·   Phonology operates in relation to a specific language.
·   Phonology is interested in regularities of sound- ·   Patterning, possibilities and also restrictions (limits). ·   In phonology, we have the abstract system. ·   Phonetics is to put this set of phoneme into practice. ·   The sound can be physical (phoneme), functional (allophone) ·   In phonology we keep the identity of sound

In his book, “phonology introduction to basic concepts”, Roger Kan defines the domain of phonology as: “phonology proudly speaking is that sub branch discipline within linguistics concerned with the ‘sound of language’ more narrowly phonology. Proper is concerned with the function, behaviour, and organization of sounds as linguistic items…”

            Phonetics and phonology:

Phonetics is the study of the speech sounds. The phonetic study tells how the sounds of a language (any language) are made, i.e. the way they are produced, and what are their acoustic properties.

A phonological study tells how these sounds are produces to convey (transmit) meaning. While the former is concerned with the physical of the speech sound, the letter is concerned with the structure and the function of these sounds in conveying.

It is said that two languages can have the same phonetics sounds, and yet, these sounds may have difference phonological properties in the two languages.

            Distinctiveness Vs Redundancy:

Let us take two languages to illustrate this statement namely English and Thai (Thailand language).

Phonetically speaking English can have two kinds of voiceless plosives [P , T , K ], aspirations are founded in words when initial, and unaspirations are founded in words after initial /s/.

Aspiration is redundant in English because it does not cause in meaning change.

There are two series of voiceless plosives in Thai: an aspirated [P^h,T^h, K^h] and an unaspirated [P, T, K].

[P^h] èis to split.

Sounds è segments. Distinctiveness means influence in meaning.

Aspiration is an identity in Thai language, it is must in Thai.

A sound can be relevant in one language and irrelevant (out of context) in another.

/p/, /t/ è are contractive and distinctive.

e.g. /pɪn/, /tɪn/

As conclusion, aspiration is irrelevant, redundant (useless) in the English sound-system.lass="MsoNormal"> In English, when a feature doesn’t change meaning, it is redundant.

e.g. [K^hɑː] or / Kɑː/

But in aspiration, it is not a redundancy, but it a distinctive. I.e. it makes meaning differ.

The value of phoneme is that it brings about the meaning different (explication).

Plosive and bilabial are two properties.

Distinctive à distinguish one phoneme from another.

/t, d/ are alveolar plosives.

Aspiration is redundant in the English phonology.

A phoneme is a functional abstract unit in the speech sound. Other linguistics defined it as a group or a family of sounds. It is bundle of distinctive feature.

⊕ and ⊖ means presence or absence of voicing.

In Thai, aspiration of the phoneme /p/ doesn’t exist.

Aspiration is not redundant and not distinctive in Thai, but in English it is.

A group of sounds is relative to one language and not to another.

The phoneme theory: “we speak about environment which means phonetic context of sounds”.

A phoneme can be theorized in many ways.

Vowels are monosyllabic which are “v” elements, and consonants are “c” elements.

E.g. the different syllabic structure in English /strːts/è cccvcc

A minimum syllable is monosyllable; it contains or consists of one vowel.

/kɪt/ ècvc : is a typical English syllable. It refers to the frequency of occurring

e.g. “k is a releasing element. The role of consonant in syllable, consonant are releasing and arresting points.

Consonant occupied a marginal role in syllable. No matter that show many rolls in frontiers in syllable, because no matter that how many consonants that you would have in syllable? This wouldn’t affect you the number of syllables.

ü  The c element /k/ is the releasing points in the typical syllable cvc

ü  This is a monosyllabic, the v element of the pattern structure is represented by a half-close front rounded /t/ represents the arresting elements.

E.g. cat è /kæt/  è cvc

The minimum distance in order to reach the posture required for the following vowels:

In assimilation, there is an economizing effort, this accommodation of the articulation of one sound to the articulation of the adjacent sound is known as similitude which is different from assimilation.

·         What is complementary distribution?

·         It refers to a specific phonetic context/environment which favours one physical quality or one allophone and excludes another.

a: is open back a rounded vowel. In phoneme theory, we find system, structure and relation language works into two different ways.

Similitude: is when the tongue has to travel the minimum distance in order to reach the posture returned to the vowel.

        Introduction to some key concepts in phonology

Vowels à Vocoids     &         Consonants à Contoids       &         System à Structure

The context of sounds: we mean the neighbouring sounds, i.e. the sounds that are before and after.

Polysyllabic words (poly=2v), e.g. a car   /ə kɑː/

                                                                                 v c v

cvc is the typical English syllable; it is the most common syllabic structure.

Consonants are marginal, e.g. trumphst    /ðraɪmfst /

                                                                               c c v c c c c

In English we can have three releasing points:

e.g.       sky  /skaɪ/                street /strɪːt /   

                            cc v                                      ccc v c
                             2                                           3

The formula of English syllable: C^0à3 V^0à3 (I.e. from Till)

E.g. trumphst /ðraɪmfst/       contains C⁴ as arresting points.

                             c c v c c c c

We can have also C⁰VC⁰, i.e. just a vowel, e.g. or /ɔː/.

We can have one releasing consonant, and no arresting one: C¹VC⁰, e.g. car /kɑː/.

The formula of syllable refers to the notion of syllable

A vowel fulfilled syllabic function

w & j (=ي as pronounced in yet /jet/) are called semi-vowels.

            The notion of consonant:

Consonant is defined as class of sounds that are produced with the structure somewhere in vocal cords.

The syllabic consonants are: l, n and all nasals è they stand for schwa (ə) + consonant.

E.g. hungry /hʌŋgrɪ/

            Exercise:

Transcribe the following words and define them into syllables:

 

Phonemically à ə + c

Christens abutting consonants: is the succession of two or more consonants, which are extended over two words.

E.g. hatrack à hat + rack (two words)

E.g. goodnight à good + night (two words)

The chest pulse theory: is a physical theory.

ü  one syllable = one pulse

ü  Two syllables = two pulses

The prominence pulse of the theory: something prominent is something important. In term of prominence, vowels are plak.

The prominence theory of the syllables:

The numbers of syllables determined by the number of vowels, hens for, vowels constitute what knows peaks of performance. (The most important or distinguish) in a word such as: sonority (vvvv), the peaks of prominence are carried by 4 vowels (o,o,i,y)

The chest pulse theory: the number of syllables is determined by the number of chest pulsate by an increase in air procedure.

The advocated of this theory states that of the vowels in the basic unit of speech, on the other hand, is curve just as boundary, it is the vowel not the consonant chest pulse audible.

v  Pattering is arrangement

v  C system is a system of consonants.

v  V system is a system of vowels.

Duality of Pattering: the two keys in the phoneme theory (Syntagm refers to) are:  system and structure working of language in two ways:

1.      Syntagmatically: structure element which are present in sequential linked to each other.

2.      Pragamatically: vertical – substitutional.

Consonant: is the releasing point and arresting one: releasing is occupied marginal role in syllable.

Vowel: is the most part point in the word. It played a vital role in syllable.

v  Glides are named none syllabic voiced.

v  Vowels are syllabic voiced.

v  Liquids are syllabic contoid.

E.g. 1./piː/      2./p^(ə)l/,     Hungary / hʌg^(ə)rɪ/,       Nasal /kɪtʃ^(ə)n/,        reason/rɪːz^(ə)n/

            Consonants:

Class (A): Obstruents		Class (B):  Sonorants
·    Stops	Plosives	·    liquids
	+
	nasals
·    Fricatives	(Narrow structure)	·    Fricatives
·    affricatives		·    affricatives

The category of stops includes plosives and nasals, whereby there is a complete structure.

ü  The Sonorants do not have the voiceless counterpart.

ü  All Sonorants are voiced.

ü  Vowels are stronger than consonants. The Sonorants are strong consonants.

ü  Glides are the approximants, they are [-cons].

ü  The consonants can be [±con].

ü  [-approx] their sounds in which there is a complete closure (stops) or narrow fricatives.

ü  All vowels are [-cons]

ü  Vowels and semivowels (glides) are [-cons]

ü  [±cons] are called specification or the value feature.

ü  [±son] are the sounds do not have the voiceless. Counterpart.

ü  Nasals are included in the Sonorants, but not in [±approx].

ü  [±cont] means continuant which is air goes out in continuant manner.

ü  [-cont] is a sound in which there is a structure.

ü  [-cont] are plosives and nasal (all the stops)

ü  [-/+ cont] i.e. the affricatives which are [-cont] then [+cont].

ü  In English, there are no nasal vowels.

ü  Nasalized vowels imply air to escape from both cavities.

When vowels are nasalized air escapes from both cavities

When we have central vowel, it is [-high] and [-low]. E.g. the schwa (ə)

(+) , (-) specification or value.

Consonant are: plosives, affricative, fricative, nasal.

Approx: when air escapes freely, the opening is wide enough to let air pass through passengers.

Vowels are always followed by glades. All vowels are voiced.

The continuant: air escapes in a continuant manner, i.e. there is no blockage.

E.g. v~ ~ ~, f~ ~ ~.

In vowels, glides and liquid: air escapes in a continuant manner.

ü  [+ cons]        Obstruents + nasals + liquids.

ü  [- cons]         glides + vowels.

ü  [+ approx]     glides + liquids.

ü  [- approx]      stops (plosives + nasals) + fricatives + affricative.

ü  Stops:           air is stopped (bottled up).

ü  Obstruents:   are plosives, fricatives and affricatives.

ü  Stops:           are (includes) plosives and nasals in which air escapes through plosion.

ü  Glides:          are /l, w, j/.

ü  Liquids:        are /l, r/.

The alveolar ridge being the front rear

Exercise:

Supply the following sounds with the appropriate value feature:

 

 

 

The diphthongs are (-short)

Pure means that vowels have got 1 position or place. Pure means also 1 element

            The Hierarchy of Sonority:

Theoretically speaking, voiced sounds are stronger than voiceless sounds; and vowels are stronger than consonants

Vowels have more carried power than consonants, and among vowels; there are some which are weak and some strong (relatively speaking) and all vowels are carrying power.

Hierarchy: is a system of great of sonority (strength/ energy/ voicing. Something sonorant = something audible).

Vowels have more power carrying than consonants.

Among vowels, low (open) vowels have more carrying power than high (close) vowels.

/ə/ schwa is the weakest vowel since there are some vowels which are stronger than other vowels.

All vowels have more carry power than constants (even they are weak vowels).

Opening vowels, low (open) have more carry power than high (close) consonants.

The strongest among consonants is:

In the prominence theory, the peak is reserved to vowels.

E.g. define the sonority of the word Manchester:

Exercise:

Define the sonority of the following words:

 

 

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